Andrew's Lit Review

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Aaron Bean's Narrative Learning 2/15/13

Knowles’s Andragogy

Andrew Buckle

Ball State University

Abstract

This paper will look at andragogy’s past, present and future. Drawing from research and perspective around the world, andragogy faces a great deal of support as well as criticism. Understanding the differences between adult and children’s learning, learning’s formal and informal settings, and the factors each element plays in adults pursuit of knowledge is considered. Although like any theory, much can be left up to those who engage in adult education, this paper seeks to provide a basis for where to begin and potential shortcomings that are inevitably present in all educational theory.
Knowle’s Andragogy

Introduction

The concept of how adults learn has had many theorist paving different paths for a framework for centuries. Malcolm Knowles’s theory of andragogy is for many, what started the adult education as a subject in itself. Andragogy is based on a series of assumptions about the adult learner and are summarized below:

1.      As adults develop and mature they progress from dependent states to self-directing states of being.

2.      Adults’ ever-growing life experience provides a knowledge base for other learning.

3.       Social contexts relate a great deal to what an adult may engage in for present learning.

4.      Adults transition to basing their learning from future applications as a child or adolescent, to applying that knowledge in the immediate realm of their life stage.

5.      Motivation for learning is largely internal.

The following review is a brief look at major themes and applications of Knowles’s andragogy. Looking at the purpose, history, problematic areas and future of the theory will help direct potential implications for the present application in the realm of adult education.

The Purpose of Andragogy

            In Knowles’s andragogy, he seeks to explain what he believes is a continuum from pre-adult learning to adult learning. In the early 20^th century there was a significant emphasis on intelligence testing, and adults were not measuring up to their contemporaries. In 1968, Knowles’s attempts to shine light on why the difference may occur and does so through his set of assumptions (summarized above). Unlike many theories, andragogy from Knowles’s point of view is illustrating to his readers what he terms a combination of science and art for the adult learner. He viewed both the teacher and student as joint inquirers, both of which contribute to the learning process. He also argues that his perspective was not necessarily a theory in the conventional sense, rather a framework in which to operate within. This of course has served as a basis for much criticism which will be addressed later. Many adult educators view Knowles’s explanation of adult learning as the basis for much North American adult educational framework and it is often paired with yet another popular theory known as self-directed learning (Merriam, s. 2001). Knowles concludes his stance on andragogy not necessarily as a theory, but more as a concept or framework in which adults learn.

History of Andragogy

Prior to adult educational theory many philosophers, educators and psychologist looked to pedagogy to help explain the adult learning process. Andragogy was what many thought to be the response to this gap in understanding of adult learning and was credited to German educator Alexander Kapp as being the first one to bring it to the surface (Savicevic, D. 1991). Malcolm Knowles is most famous for brining this concept of adult learning theory to the modern era and what much of the debate on adult learning theory is based on today (Merriam, S. 2001).In the United States, educators of adults have struggled to agree on andragogy’s researchable definition. However when compared to the larger world, specifically in European nations, andragogy has had significant implications and applications to the societies in which it is used. Take Germany for example, shortly after World War I, the worker’s movement provided those seeking formal training in the industrialized nation with learning opportunities toward a profession (Savicevic, D. 1991). In this sense, andragogy was not necessary a educational theory, so much as a way to teach the adults for these new industrialized needs within their nation. Although andragogy was not as well defined in this era as it is in Knowles’s position on the term, it is important that as reviewers of the concept, that we see its place in history. Savicevic reminds his readers how theory is shaped by history, and often a theory gains momentum and prominence as it is seen throughout time. We see this in other fields, such as psychology as a science for example. For years philosophy dominated the realm of human thought, which sought to describe it. It was not until the early 20^th century that we saw theories come to pass in this new arena and see the subject area of psychology become a notable science.

            As we see society’s needs change, we can often see changes in adults’ pursuits. Again, returning to Germany, World War I dominated the culture of the time. When it was over, there of course was a significant need for restoration, industrialized training and much more. To understand where adults’ motivation to learn lies, we must begin seeing the evolution of a society in the broadest scope as well. Looking back then, can often help guide our adult educators into the future too. Andragogy has had a difficult time specifying itself into practical applications. Many educators looked to the theory of andragogy as a discipline within the context of adult learning. Others, on the other hand, saw it as a new subject in which to study. For many early skeptics of modern andragogy, their view of it was simply a discipline or lens in which to look through, while other proponents of it saw andragogy as a whole new field much as pedagogy had been for centuries before, and began to search and discover its merits.

Pedagogy versus Andragogy

Complications often occur for educators who have long spent their training years looking at one method of teaching philosophy. Pedagogy has often controlled the arena of education in all forms, despite that is earliest intentions were directed at teaching children and not adults. Pedagogy is an actual reference historically to the teaching of children, and andragogy has taken the title for learning in adulthood. Many educational professionals are recognizing the significant difference between the two groups and the educational implications associated with them. Take children for example, they bring little prior knowledge or experience to the table, and are often required to attend the learning environment, most notably formal schooling. The application of skills is often future based, as children are not taking these skills directly into the workforce, nor are they directly using them in their home or community. Contrary to children, adults bring a wealth of knowledge and prior experience to the learning setting. Whether the educational environment is formal, informal or otherwise; adults are connecting material to their immediate life stage and their previous experience is having influence also. As educators of adults, it is important then that we understand these differences and make the appropriate changes where we can in our curriculum, teaching methodology and course objectives. Although many adult students may look to the educator in the room as an expert and be more than willing to sit at the feet of the “sage” of knowledge, for long term educational achievement it is certainly important that adult educators recognize the experiential difference between children and adults when engaging in the learning process.

What then must be considered are our planning, implementation and the needs of our learners. Tom Gehring reminds educators that this view and approach to adult learning from that of traditional pedagogy is of great importance. He reminds the adult educator that the student in your classroom is ready and willing to learn and the motivating factor for having them in your classroom is a significant difference than that of the child (Ghering, T. 2000).  We must then use such realities to our advantage in teaching. Build on this motivation, use the collaborative experience of teacher and student relationship to draw them into their learning and help give the student a context for the experiences they have already had. Ghering also challenges the adult educator to evaluate the needs of the student. The implication is whatever the educator may have set as a main objective, may already be in that student or group of students’ skill sets. Drawing on one another is a great way to teach, re-teach and make valuable connections that children with their limited experiences may not be able to do. As educators whether we find ourselves in the formal educational setting or more informal situations, the adult student’s knowledge base is certainly worth considering when designing or covering a particular set of course objectives.

Problems Facing Andragogy

Andragogy brings with it a great deal of strengths, which have just been highlighted, however there are also a great deal of barriers and questions remaining as well. One such issue is the use of measuring adult learning within the context of higher education; most formal courses being taught to adults require a standard test taking practice. This is in opposition to where motivation may lay with the learner, no longer is the learning taking place for the person’s general benefit of gaining knowledge, but is prompted by the fear of receiving a bad grade from the instructor administering the test itself. Knowles certainly believed adult learning motivation was from within. Additionally, inside the context of the motivation, many college courses have objectives put in place for the semester. Now the learner is no longer directing his or her learning, but is actually having it dictated by a college faculty member. Learning is directed on predetermined factors, and pending the class being taken may not be directly applicable to the adult student’s life at all. Simply put, the adult is taking the course as part of a degree requirement. For example, in many schools of higher education, degrees require a great deal of liberal arts based courses that may include: humanities, social science and literature content despite their degree being in the realm of science, mathematics or engineering. The students’ argument, as often heard by their teachers is, “why do I have to take this course?” Professor John Rachal bring this to light when he poses this dilemma to his readers and points out that such a system, which has been in place for some time, is in fact not a andragogical based process at all (Rachal, J. 2002).

Another problematic point one must consider is the control in which a learner has over the content being studied. Knowles emphasizes that the adult is moving to a self-directing learning style and in many ways brings as much to the preverbal learning table as the teacher or facilitator does. How does this translate to the adult learner in practice though, if the adult brings little experience or knowledge to the table? Perhaps an adult student desires to go into the elementary teaching profession. The only experience is their own upbringing in the K-12 system, and pending their age, may be many years removed from the memory. Nontraditional students, those over 25 years of age and have been in the mainstream workforce, may bring little understanding of pedagogy and methodology to the classroom, especially if they have not worked in this environment professionally. Would it not be safe to say that the faculty member teaching basic educational philosophy is needed in a greater capacity to direct the student learning better than the adult learner is? If the adult learners do in fact chose what they feel is most needed in their educational training for becoming a teacher, will they not run a high risk of missing significant concepts, philosophies and strategies to do their future jobs well? Imagine this same approach to the health care profession or engineering field. It is clear that our adult educators must have objectives and clear outcomes to prepare these students for the work that they attend the college for. This will inevitably result in the adult educator’s need to dictate to some extent where the learning endeavor will be headed.

Returning to the standardized testing format, for many learners, testing proves to be a significant motivator for learning material. Many critics of andragogy emphasize more performance based assessments. Although there are strengths to this format, such as the freedom of expression and making significant meaning out of a person’s learning environment. In the formal collegiate learning environment, this is open to a great deal of subjectivity and inconsistency when evaluating the performance assessment. Furthermore, many professions do not operate under the notion of performance based or authentic work to gain a professional credential. Standardized test are required to become a professional k-12 educator, lawyer, nurse or certified public accountant (C.P.A.), to name but a few. Without educational institutions putting standardized testing in place, their graduates will likely end up ill prepared or at worst unemployed. We must balance what is internally motivating then with our adult students and what is necessary for meeting the demands of a society that looks to professional standards as a measurement for professional qualifications.

The Future of Andragogy

Andragogy has found its place in almost all spheres of adult learning. It is seen in the workplace, higher education, as well as personal enrichment opportunities. Many professionals are calling for additional study of this theory and more consistency within the research methodology (Henschke, J. 2011). Andragogy seems to evolve, much like other theories, with time and exposure to the setting in which they are intended for. How andragogy is viewed in America seems to have significant differences within that of other countries across Europe. Even European nations see differences in the application of the theory (Savicevic, D. 1991, Yoshimoto, K, Inenaga, Y & Hiroshi, Y. 2007).  What seems evident is that a clearer, quantifiable definition is needed, and a streamlined agreed upon research approach if the framework is to gain significant consideration as a theory in the adult education world (Henshke, J. 2011).

The future of Andragogy is littered with possibility, but is problematic specifically in higher education institutions. In one review of the concept, professor of adult education John Rachal recommends seven considerations when researching andragogy: voluntary participation, adult status, collaboratively-determined objectives, performance based assessments, measuring satisfaction, appropriateness of the learning and technical issues (Rachal, J. 2002). The first consideration is how are the adult students coming to the educational environment? If the learner is coming on his or her own accord, then a bit more objectivity is possible, as we see adults learning for the sake of their own personal fulfillment in a content area. However, for many adults pursuing higher education, at least in our current economic climate, adults may return to formal schooling to gain necessary skills for the 21^st century. Although they come on their own, it may be out of desperation for a new job rather than actually seeking personal development. Thus, removing much of the internal motivation Knowles argues for in his assumptions.

In Rachal’s second point, he almost excludes higher education altogether since many seeking this kind of training may not actually fall into a true category of “adulthood”. However, many displaced workers or those who have many more years of service to give to an employer have in recent years flocked to local colleges and universities for formal training to acquire new work. One must ask himself then is the title of “adult” is something that can be gained and lost based on a person’s economic stance. Andragogy and Rachal both focus on the collaboration of student and instructor. This writer agrees that it is a unique way of engaging adult learners into the content matter. However, this is likely limited to certain educational settings, such as a personal enrichment course on gardening or financial planning seminars. Conversely if applied to a setting where adults are required to reach certain objectives for the course that are previously put in place, this form of collaboration will certainly be problematic.

What Rachal is advocating for is more standardized focus in the area of research for the study of andragogy. For most of the concept’s modern existence critics and supporters alike have taken it in different ways, making a true assessment of its validity hard to consider. (Rachal, J. 2002). Other professionals in the field are calling for additional global support for research on the study of andragogy, noting that the need for clearer adult training and development theory is considered necessary (Zmeyov, S. 1998). As our population increases in overall age, and technology is an ever growing and changing factor in the global skill set, it is vital then that a systematic understanding of how adults develop in the learning environment be taken into consideration. This would result in adult educators being better equipped and adult students are reaping the most from their educational experience.

Implications for Andragogy

Andragogy has come into a great deal of debate, and like many theories it is unlikely that all educational professionals will agree. Knowles’s view of adult learning certainly brings to the surface a great deal of perspective when compared to that of children’s learning in the United States. It allows adult educators to reflect on their own teaching practice to direct future learning. It is important that as adult educators we consider the wealth of knowledge students in our adult classroom or learning environment bring to the table. It is imperative that as we teach, regardless of the setting, that we honor the students’ background, views and contributions. Although in many situations, such as higher educational classrooms, a student cannot direct completely how a course’s objectives may be laid out. Educators who are continuing to get feedback from the adult learner, connecting this to the students’ past is a significant way for that student to have more ownership over their education and feel that their life experience is valued. Although internal motivation is ideal for learning situations, in the formal classroom setting, this may have standard assessments combating for the adult’s true motivation for learning the course content. Motivation may have a duality to it, by which students are internally seeking to grow in their knowledge or skill base, and enjoy this nature of it; but are faced with the reality that standard assessment measures are requirements as well. Despite this, standardized assessment may also serve to lead adult students toward excellence in the area in which they are learning, though its external motivational force is clear.

To rectify these theoretical inconsistencies with practical application it is this author’s recommendation that a balance of student input and teacher expertise is needed. Motivating factors should be considered, but as culture changes so too will adults and their pursuit of more learning adventures in the formal educational environment. Adult educators in this formal role will need to consider these societal changes as they plan courses and facilitate student learning. In the informal settings, there is more freedom of course for student input, fluidity of learning objectives and evaluation practices. In this informal realm, andragogy may have a great deal of influence and insight that educators should consider even it is present state.

Table 1. Summary of Literature Review

	Main ideas in the literature	Application of the main ideas in practice
Idea 1	The Purpose of Andragogy	Provides a framework in which educators can understand adult learners’ connection and contribution to the learning they are engaged in. Adults bring experience, internal motivation and a desire for immediate application of content to the learning environment.
Idea 2	History of Andragogy	Theories and concepts change over time, many have taken the theory of andragogy multiple directions leaving inconsistencies about its validity.
Idea 3	Pedagogy versus Andragogy	Adults learn differently than children, incorporating the motives and experiences of adults is crucial to differentiating our instruction from that of children.
Idea 4	Problems Facing Andragogy	Adults do not always bring with them relevant experience to their new learning and may not be truly voluntarily learning at all.
Idea 5	The Future of Andragogy	Andragogy in Knowles’s sense may serve as a framework for learning, rather than an actual theory. This means that elements should be considered about the learning environment and future research must have standards to test andragogy’s theoretical stance.
Idea 6	Implications for andragogy	Adult educators must consider both the learning context and the adult learners’ connection to the content if collaboration is to be used and to what extent. Additionally, motivational factors defer widely with adults and considering this when teaching is important as well.

References

Gehring, T. (2000). A Compendium of Material on the Pedagogy-Andragogy Issue. Journal of Correctional Education Vol. 51 (Issue 1), p151-163.

Henshke, J.A. (2011). Considerations Regarding the Future of Andragogy. Adult Learning Vol. 22       (Issue 1), p34-37.

Merriam, S. B. (2001). Andragogy and Self-Directed Learning: Pillars of Adult Learning Theory. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education (Issue 89), p3-13.

Rachal, J.R. (2002). Andragogy’s Detectives: A Critique of the Present and A Proposal for the Future. Adult Education Quarterly, Vol. 52 (Issue 3), 210-227

Savicevic, D. M. (1991). Modern Conceptions of Andragogy: A European Framework. Studies in the Education of Adults, Vol. 23(Issue 2), p179-202.

Yoshimoto, K., Inenaga, Y.& Yamada, H. (2007). Pedagogy and Andragogy in Higher Education- A Comparison between Germany, the UK and Japan. European Journal of Education, Vol. 42   (Issue 1), p75-98.

Zmeyov, S. I. (1998). Andragogy: Origins, Developments and Trends. International Review of Education / Internationale Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft, Vol. 44 (Issue 1), p103-108.