Amanda's Literature Review

Running Head: ANDRAGOGY

Andragogy: A Strategy for Teaching Adults

Amanda Bolin

Ball State University – EDAC 634

Abstract

This paper will examine the literature representing the adult learning theory of andragogy, which emphasizes the history, usefulness and criticism linked to this theory for adult learning. An introduction regarding the background and main points of the theory will be analyzed. It will discuss both the practical application of the theory and general theoretical ideas present in the literature. The implications of this theory will be addressed. The andragogy theory’s application into practice will also be analyzed. The primary scholars of this theory are Alexander Knapp who originally coined the term, Eduard Lindeman, and Malcolm Knowles who is famous for the adoption of the andragogy theory and the assumptions of adult learning, these will also be discussed.

Andragogy: Strategies for Teaching Adults

Introduction and Background

            Understanding the adult learner is quite complex. There have been three significant contributors to understanding adult learning.  First, educators have been utilizing a theory, andragogy, since 1833 when German grammar teacher, Alexander Knapp coined the term referring to the way adults engage in continued education. Later, in the early 20^th century adult education expert Eduard Lindeman used the theory of andragogy, which pointed out that adults should be educated by guidance rather than a lecture type setting. Finally it was Malcolm Knowles “the Father of Adult Learning” who popularized the concept of andragogy. Andragogy, the art and science of helping adults learn, has a long and rich history that has shaped understanding of adult learning and continues to be a strong force in guiding the way adults learn (Henschke, 2011). Andragogy is based on multiple assumptions in which adult learners may thrive in an educational environment.  The original assumptions placed by Knowles are (Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner, 2007):

Andragogy Theory – Primary Assumptions

1)      As a person matures, his or her self-concept moves from that of a dependent personality toward one of a self-directing human being.

2)      An adult accumulates a growing reservoir of experience, which is a rich resource for learning.

3)      The readiness of an adult to learn is closely related to the developmental tasks of his or her social role.

4)      There is a change in time perspective as people mature – from future application of knowledge to immediacy of application. Thus, an adult is more problem centered than subject centered in learning.

In later publications, Knowles also referred to a fifth and a sixth assumption (Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner, 2007):

5)      The most potent motivations are internal rather than external.

6)      Adults need to know why they need to learn something.

Andragogy thus considers the learner as the real subject of his or her learning process. This situation changes the roles and functions of both learner and teacher. From this standpoint, andragogy could be said to be the theory of adult learning that set out the scientific fundamentals of the activities of learners and teachers in planning, realizing, evaluating and correcting adult learning (Zmeyov, 1998). The purpose of the research is to gain better understanding of andragogy and its assumptions and how the theory may be applied in teaching adult learners most effectively along with the challenges of andragogy. Hartree (1984) found that Knowles’ work presented three difficulties for adult educators: (a) ambiguity as to whether he is dealing with theory or practice, (b) confusion over the relationship he sees between adult and child learning, and (c) confusion between whether his theory is one of teaching or one of learning.

General Themes of Andragogy

            Andragogy and self-directed learning continue to be important to present-day understanding of adult learning (Merriam, 2001). For decades, andragogy has been scrutinized, meaning some propose it is not a theory at all, but rather principles. The 1970s and early 1980s witnessed much writing, debate, and discussion about the validity of andragogy as a theory of adult learning (Merriam, 2001). Hartree (1984) questioned whether there was a theory at all, suggesting that perhaps these were just principles of good practice, or descriptions of “what the adult learner should be like” (p. 205). Knowles himself came to concur that andragogy is less a theory of adult learning than a “model of assumptions about learning or a conceptual framework that serves as a basis for an emergent theory” (1989, p. 112). Andragogy deals with such basic concerns as the nature of the learner, the goals sought of the learner, the social and physical milieu in which instruction occurs, and the techniques of learning or teaching used. These and other components may be combined to infinite ways. Andragogy remains as the most learner-centered of all patterns of adult programming (Houle, 1996). Once an adult learner is able to understand why the information is important they will be able to apply it to their lives and become more motivated to grasp the main ideas and provide insight to problem solving. Once a learner becomes involved, there is an expectation of the educator to provide some guidelines for the education, so learners know they will gain the most insight and be successful in learning the materials required. This relates to one of the assumptions proposed by Knowles that adult learners need to know why they are to learn something. The goal of adult education should be self-actualization; thus, the learning process should involve the whole emotional, psychological, and intellectual being (Knowles, 1980). Adults need to know the utility and value of the material they are learning before embarking on learning (Ozuah, 2005).

A second theme which is also a criticism of andragogy ongoing to this day, is the extent to which the assumptions are characteristic of adult learners only (Merriam, 2001). All learners, children or adults, are motivated in different ways, this observation helps to show that some adults may embark in learning something new or be involved in a training session simply because they have to, not because they want to. Because these assumptions were not necessarily true of all adults led Knowles himself to revise his thinking as to whether andragogy was just for adults and pedagogy just for children. Pedagogy is similar to andragogy, meaning science of educating children, rather than adults and the instruction is teacher-focused, rather than learner driven, Between 1970 and 1980 he moved from ranging from teacher-directed to student-directed learning. He acknowledged that both approaches are appropriate with children and adults, depending on the situation. For example, an adult who knows little or nothing about a topic will be more dependent on the teacher for direction; at the other extreme, children who are naturally curious and who are “very self-directing in school” (Merriam, 2001). Although it is also know and well documented that adult learners want autonomy and desire independence. The main difference is that children have less experiences and pre-established beliefs than adults and thus have less to relate to.

Lastly, it is often debated as to whether andragogy is a theory of learning or teaching. For example, andragogy is a type of learning which often times self-directed by a learner, rather than an educator providing much of the direction of a class. An educator often times may play a role as a facilitator for the class and the class will engage and research on their own to develop an understanding of materials. According to Knowles (1975), in the broadest sense, self-directed learning describes a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating outcomes. This style of learning provides a more purposeful experience for an adult learner, all the while can also produce some frustrations if an educator does not facilitate properly.

Implications

Discussions of andragogy in the decade of the 1990s demonstrate both its usefulness for exploring some of the definitional and philosophical issues related to the evolution of adult education as a scientific discipline, and its strengths and weaknesses as a guide to practice (Merriam, 2001). Andragogy has been one of the most researched theories regarding adult education which has proven over time to be effective for adult learners. Andragogy should be viewed as a set of guidelines in which can be translated into a learning environment successfully, but it is up to the educator to analyze their students and understand what will be practical in their particular setting. Educators must consider multiple approaches when guiding their students, knowing their learner will have a rich history of experience, are likely internally motivated when information pertains to them, and will need to know why the information should be important for them to apply in their lives.

Conclusion

Whether termed a theory, philosophy, or a set of guiding principles, Knowles’ work is still relevant in today’s world, in partnership with other theorists providing additional guidance to the practice of adult learning and education. Even through years of research and putting the theory into practice, adults learn differently and it is up to educators to influence adults in receiving new knowledge. Thus it is in the facilitator/educators hands, for adult learning selecting and applying the correct theory will yield best results.

Table 1. Summary of Literature Review
The Main Ideas in Literature	Application of the Main Ideas
1.      Theory or Practice	A theory which can be used in practice successfully when educator uses andragogy in the correct context
2.      Adult or Child	Adults and children learn differently. Children need an environment where a teacher leads the class and adults thrive in an environment in which they have input
3.      Teaching or Learning	A combination would be ideal - adults can use some facilitating and guidance from an educator to build a foundation before venturing out on their own to learn.

References

1)      Hartree, A. (1984). Malcolm Knowles' theory of andragogy: A critique.International Journal of Lifelong Education, 3, 203210.

2)      Henschke, J.A. (2011). Considerations Regarding the Future of Andragogy. Adult Learning, 22 (1), 34-37.

3)      Houle, C. O. (1996). The design of education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

4)      Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall/Cambridge.

5)      Knowles, Malcolm S. (1989): The Making of an Adult Educator. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

6)      Merriam, S.B. (2001). Andragogy and Self-Directed Learning: Pillars of Adult Learning Theory. New Directions For Adult & Continuing Education, (89), 3.

7)      Ozuah, P.O. (2005). First, There Was Pedagogy And Then Came Andragogy. Einstein Joural Of Biology & Medicine, 21(2), 83-87.

8)      Zmeyov, S.I. (1998). Andragogy: Origins, Developments and Trends. International Review Of Eduction, 44(1), 103-108.