Paul Starr's Lit Review

Introduction

            Prior to the 1970’s, there was relatively little research devoted specifically to the topic of adult education as distinct from other forms of education. During this eventful decade, Adult Educators began to see themselves as a separate field, and as such began to look for theories and models to help delineate their own practice from child educators. Since the 1970’s, scholars in the field of Adult Education have struggled to come to consensus on a unifying theory for the entirety of the field. Knowles (1973), gave us Andragogy, arguably the closest the field of Adult Education has come to finding that unifying theory.
            We will examine the literature surrounding Andragogy in search of insights we might gain into the construction of Knowles’ theory, and the reactions of those in the Adult Education community that followed.  

General Themes

            In order to fully appreciate Knowles contributions to the field of Adult Education, we should examine the theoretical landscape which gave birth to Andragogy. Breakthroughs in other fields decades earlier would pave the road for most of the foundational thought on Adult Education. In (1954) Abraham Maslow unveiled his Hierarchy of Needs and revolutionized how we conceive of human achievement and motivation.

            It’s against this Humanist backdrop that many Adult Educators found their practices growing and taking shape. Most of the authors prior to 1970 found themselves in a field of Adult Education that had yet to distinguish itself from child education. As a result, many of the scholars at this time were either struggling to make pedagogical models work for adults, or were dutifully collecting the assorted theories, concepts, and principles available from other scholars. J.R. Kidd (1959) noted the limited distinction and stigma associated with Adult Education, saying “adult learning was considered only as remedial, the number of conceptions designed to guide or challenge observation and reflection have not been plentiful” (p.38).

            In How Adults Learn, Kidd (1959) both presents a collection of best practices, and makes an attempt to re-work pedagogical principles into useful tools for Adult Educators. Kidd notes that the changing of roles in a adults life is often an impetus to for learning as the competencies required to fulfill that role properly change. The competencies required to fulfill the role of worker, for instance, are not at all the same as those required to fulfill the role of parent. When an adult becomes a parent, they must be learn these new competencies, or at least experience considerable social pressure to do so. Also, as an adult often fills many roles in life simultaneously (citizen, father, worker, etc.) it is usually necessary for adults to be constantly learning  and expanding their competencies not only for those roles they fill now, but also for those roles they will soon fill.

            Kidd also focuses somewhat on experience of adult learners, though not in quite the same fashion as Knowles. Kidd acknowledges that adults have more experiences than children, as well as more diverse experiences, but also goes on to assert that these experiences are organized differently by adults than they might be by a child. For Kidd, it is important for adult educators to “identify the kinds of experience that may dispose the adult toward effective and continuous learning. Past experience provides a basis for expectation.”(p. 46)

            Finally, Kidd posits a number of ways in which adults know differently than children know: First, adults are used to working in a world where there are few or no ‘correct’ answers. Uncertainty in many areas of life is natural and comfortable for most adults. Second, religion and tradition may dictate ‘correctness’ in ways and areas that are obviously unworkable in the real world. Adults, much more so than children, are able to negotiate the cognitive dissonance this creates and approach the world in pragmatic terms. Third, adult learners often seek immediately applicable answers to real-world problems. Fourth, the expectations of the educator may not match up with the expectations of the learner. As children are educated, they educator sets the tone and expectations, but adults may have widely differing expectations.

            In (1973) Knowles published the first edition of The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species, which spells out his theory of Andragogy. For the first time in the course of Adult Education, a clear theory was set forth for Adult Education as a distinct thing from the education of children. Knowles’ Andragogical Model consists of five assumptions.

            The first assumption is that adults need to know why they should learn a particular thing before they begin to learn it. While adults can learn without knowing why they should learn, adults will generally pour much time, attention, and focus into learning when they are told up-front why the learning should be important to them. Children are often willing to learn simply because an authority figure tells them they must learn. This authoritarian approach does not work well with adults, as Knowles (1973) says, “Consequently, one of the new aphorisms in adult education is that the first task of the facilitator of learning is to help learners become aware of the ‘need to know’” (p.58)

            The second assumption is that adults have independent self-concepts. In and of itself, this would seem to have little impact on adult education, but when one considers that most education in the US has focused on students being subordinate to teachers, it is easy to see how many adults could bulk at the idea of further education. Within this Andragogical model, successful adult educators will create a learning environment in which the adult learners feel as though they are peers to the educator.

            The third assumption is that adults bring with them a wealth of experience which can become an invaluable resource for education. Knowles writes “Adults come into an educational activity with both a greater volume and a different quality of experience than youths. By virtue of simply having lived longer, they have accumulated more experience than they had as youths” (p. 59) Furthermore, adults derive their identity from their experiences, and by honoring their experiences in the educational setting, you honor and respect your learners.

            The fourth assumption is that adults are “ready to learn those things they need to know and be able to do in order to cope effectively with their real-life situations.” (p.60) Adults will determine their own readiness to learn. Furthermore, adults will often base this on what they can deduce on their own is needed to handle whatever situation they are facing in the real-world. Store clerks may not be ready to learn management skills until they are promoted to management.

            The fifth assumption is that adults are focused on living their lives, and as a result are oriented toards the practical and immediate application of knowledge. Children tend to have a subject-centered approach to learning and education as they have little need for directly applicable knowledge. However, as we grow and mature into more responsibility, most adults will gradually feel the need for immediately practical knowledge and learning.

            The sixth assumption is that adults are best motivated by intrinsic factors. Extrinsic factors can produce quality motivation for adult learners. However, learners who are motivated by a desire for a better quality-of-life, self-esteem, or other intrinsic factors are more motivated to learn.  Children can often be motivated quite well by extrinsic factors (such as advancement to the next grade).

            Andragogy has had it’s share of critics and more than a few competing sets of assumptions. Houle in (1995) released a set of assumptions in response to Andragogy. Houle’s first assumption is that any learning takes place in a particular situation, and that situation has a substantial impact on the learning that takes place. Houle writes “every activity learners undertake is unlike any other; for example, every class they attend is unique” (p. 42)

            Another assumption of Houle is that “education is a cooperative rather than an operative art.” (p. 44) This is to say that the learner and the educator must work together to create the art that is education. An educator cannot, alone, create education in the same way that a sculptor can create a sculpture with no outside help. Instead, an educator will reach out to student and together they will negotiate what it is that is created between them.

            Houle also assumes that “program design should be based on decision points, not prescriptions” (p.51) For Houle, any educational effort that is built entirely on a prescribed notion of what is to be learned by students is doomed to failure. Instead, any instructional design must, by it’s nature, take into account environmental factors and the needs of various stakeholders.

            In (2008) Rachal would offer a wholly different critique of Knowle’s famous work. Rachal looked at the body of literature since Andragogy and found precious little empirical evidence to support it. What few empirical studies there are, claims Rachal, are plagued by vaigue and often contradictory definitions of the core assumptions of Andragogy. If one cannot define Andragogy, then it is impossible to imperially test the validity of the theory.

            To help address these issues, Rachal suggests the following criteria be implemented for any empirical study of Andragogy continues. It’s a list of assumptions about a list of someone else’s assumptions, if you will. The first assumption of Rachal is that all participation not only in the study, but in the learning being studied should be voluntary. If, as Knowles insists, the best motivation is intrinsic, then those adults sitting through required University courses are poorly chosen candidates for study. Another assumption Rachal makes is that all students should be adults. Mixing groups amongst traditional college aged students and adults makes for muddled results, particularly when Andragogy specifically talks about Adult Education. Collaboratively-determined objectives is Rachal’s third assumption. If Knowles’ Andragogy is to be empirically shown to be effective or otherwise, learners must have input on learning objectives. Assumption four is that performance-based assessment should be done to measure learner achievement. Without this, how can one measure the actual learning of the students? Similarly, learner satisfaction should be measured. Finally, Rachal suggests that any empirical study of Andragogy must take place in an appropriate learning environment for adults.

Implications

            Regardless of one’s opinion of Knowels’ Andragogy, it’s impact on the field of adult education is undeniable. Having a firm grasp of it, and the academic time-and-place that gave birth to it are an essential tool for any adult educator. While at times they may feel quite dated, some of the notions of adult learning that came before Andragogy may help inform good adult educational practice and theory even today. Kidd describes adult learner motivation as being tied to the need to fulfill different roles in society. As each role requires new competencies to be mastered, an adult will strive to master those competencies. This seems to be a clear parallel to Knowel’s insistence that intrinsically motivated learners are more motivated than extrinsically motivated learners.

            Another parallel seen in the literature comes from Houle, who insists that education is a cooperative affair. This connects quite nicely with Knowels’ idea of cooperatively determined learning objectives being more powerful than learning objectives handed down from an expert. As adults chart their own course in daily life (some might argue that this is the defining characteristic of adulthood), robbing adult learners of the ability to determine the course of a learning event is to rob them, at least in part, of their adult identity. Few adults will choose to remain in an environment in which their identity is threatened.

            Rachal’s study of empirical evidence to support Knowels’ Andragogy reveals little evidence to either support or refute the theory. Perhaps this is because Andragogy is not a proper theory as such, but more of as set of guidelines that will help steer an adult educator towards better practice. Indeed, Knowels himself seems to view Pedagogy and Andragogy as opposite poles on a gradient scale. Thus, as academics search for empirical evidence to support the theory, they may well be missing the apples for the oranges. Similarly, an adult educator who tries to implement a purely Andragogical approach to adult education in all situations is making a misguided effort as each learning event must be tailored to the needs of the learners and the particular learning environment.

           

Main Idea in Literature	Practical Application in Practice
Adults motivated best by intrinsic motivation	Foster voluntary learning which stems from intrinsic motivations
Adult Identity tied to experience	Honor the experiences of adult learners and use them as a resource in learning
Adult Identity tied to independence and decision making	Allow adult learners space to determine some or all learning objectives and methods of reaching those objectives
Andragogy can be viewed as a set of principles or guidelines on a spectrum rather than a theory	Not all Androgogical principles will work in all situations. An effort must be made to tailor each learning experience to specific needs of learners and environment.

References

Houle, C. O. (1996). The Design of Education. Jossey-Bass Higher and Adult Education Series. Jossey-Bass Inc., Publishers, 350 Sansome Street, San Francisco, CA 94104.

Kidd, J. R. (1973). How adults learn.

Knowles, M. (1988). The adult learner: a neglected species (Houston, TX, Gulf).

Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and personality. (3rd revised ed. ed.). New York: Harper

Rachal, J. R. (2002). ANDRAGOGY'S DETECTIVES: ACRITIQUE OF THE PRESENT AND           A PROPOSAL FOR THE FUTURE. Adult Education Quarterly, 52(3), 210.