Scott Rafalski- Lit Review

Lit Review Responses:
Andrew Buckle Andragogy  2/17/13
Paul Starr Andragogy 2/17/13 

Running head: ANDRAGOGY: AN ADULT LEARNING THEORY

Andragogy: An Adult Learning Theory

Scott Rafalski

Ball State University- EDAC 634

Abstract

This paper is a literature review of the adult learning theory, andragogy.  It begins with the history of andragogy and its creator, Malcolm Knowles.   The theory is then broken down into its general themes, concepts and main points.  Different scholarly points of views are included to allow for a more rounded representation and viewpoint of andragogy.  Lastly, time is given to review how andragogy can be applied in true practice.  A conclusion and summary are included to further guide and understand andragogy.  Finally, a resource page shows the literature that was used for review.   

     Andragogy: An Adult Learning Theory

Introduction

Andragogy, and its current usage, grew out of the early writings of Malcolm Knowles in the 1960’s and 1970’s.  Knowles believed that adult learning should not be included with pedagogy (childhood learning) and had different characteristics that separated it.  This separation was explained through a set of assumptions. Arguments can be made that andragogy is the oldest and the first adult learning theory and therefore is probably the best known. 

 Andragogy can be defined as the art and science of helping adults learn, as opposed to pedagogy, the art and science of helping children learn (Merriam and Brockett, 2007).   The term literally means “leader of men”.  The term andragogy has been used historically as a synonym for adult learning and education. 

General Themes for Andragogy

Six assumptions have become the basis for Andragogy.  These assumptions are critical for understanding andragogy.  Knowles began with four but after his theory was critiqued in the 1970’s the theory evolved and he added two more. 

Assumption one assumes that adult learners are self-directed learners.  Knowles would argue therefore that adults need to know what they are learning and why, they should be involved in the learning process (Merriam, S., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L., 2007).  This adult setting would be collaborative with the administrator as a guide and basically they would take this journey on together. 

Assumption two of andragogy maintains that adults accumulate a wealth of personal, life experience(s) (Merriam, S., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L., 2007).  These experiences have helped to shape their lives and who they are and can be used to help with the learning process.  By including these experiences into the setting adults will become more actively engaged is the thought process here.

Assumption three regards a learner’s self-concept.  Adult learners take responsibility for their actions by taking ownership of their learning.  Adults expect and enjoy independence.  Assumption four examines an adult learner’s willingness and readiness to learn.  Is the learning timely, relevant and recognizing that the context is important.  Adult learners determine how much support; encouragement is needed but also assistance through direction and general competence. 

Assumption five is the orientation to learning.  Experiential learning is critical for adults and can be done through tasks and problem solving.  Adult learners should learn within the “here and now”.  Adults and learners need to be problem or task centered.  The last assumption is the adult learner’s motivation to learn.  Motivation comes extrinsically through rewards and grades or intrinsically through self-gratification and satisfaction.  It is more likely that adult learners want intrinsic rewards. 

Critiques of Andragogy

Although Daniel Pratt is a supporter of Andragogy and its impact, he is skeptical and believes it is limited as a theory.  He concluded that andragogy isn’t really grand in substance, does little to expand or clarify our understanding of the process of learning and has not been tested whatsoever as being the basis of adult learning theory or a unifying model (Merriam and Brockett, 2007).  Fundamentally learning is still learning. 

Andragogy also doesn’t really consider and look at multicultural issues and has been considered to be a white and western world bias (Baumgartner, L. 2008).  It never really takes into account those that are privileged versus the oppressed.  Those of different cultural backgrounds that may have very distinct and drastically different experiences cannot fall under these same assumptions can they?  Feminists have also been critical of a woman’s role and place within this theory. 

Probably the biggest critique of andragogy is if it really can be considered a “theory” since it is based on a set of assumptions.  These assumptions also cannot be applied equally to all adults as it is a huge group with a variety of different backgrounds and experiences.  These assumptions also cannot be applied to one individual all the time as experiences change.  A case can be made that andragogy is more of a theory of teaching and also hopefully what can be expected of adult learners. Andragogy thus appears to be more situation specific and not unique to adults (Merriam, S., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L., 2007).  Knowles himself probably put it best when he stated that andragogy is a model of assumptions that are a basis for an emergent theory (Merriam, S., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L., 2007).

Support for Andragogy

Harold Beder believed that although adults and preadults cognitively learned the same that the context differed substantially between the two and that adults should be educated therefore differently than preadults (Merriam and Brockett, 2007).  The following can be used as an example to illustrate this.  The primary focus of preadult education is to produce productive, contributing adult members to society while focusing on values and morals, while adult learners already come in with formed values and attitudes (Merriam and Brockett, 2007).  So if the focus of childhood learning is to produce adults then obviously the purpose of adult learning is different. 

Research and Andragogy in Practice

Research has been conducted to determine if teachers use a different style while teaching adults versus preadults.  The research has been done through teacher’s interactions and writing but also through direct classroom observation and similar results have been found.  Studies completed by Beder and Darkenwald (questionnaires) and Gorham (classroom observations) found that while teaching adults less time is spent on discipline and giving directions, less emotional support is given and needed, activities aren’t structured as tightly and more teaching techniques are used (Imel, S., 1989).  This research led to adult learners in practice receiving more learner-centered methods and instruction. This came in the form of group instruction (small group discussion methods), a greater relationship of class material to student life experiences and even in the use of non-traditional room arrangements (Imel, S., 1989).  Further research has added even more training methods.  Mihal and Beletti, through 13,000 hours of research, concluded that the following methods are practical for adult learners.  The use of a trainer/presenter/lecturer, structured exercise or role play, individual exercises, facilitated group discussion, case studies, and lastly demonstrations were found to produce the best results with adult learners (Mihall, J., & Belletti, H. 1999).

An actual non-traditional, experiential learning program model has been created and put into practice that emphasizes the key components of andragogy.  This model was created out of the philosophy and work of individuals like John Dewey, Malcolm Knowles and David Kolb.  The model has six stages: motivation, orientation, involvement, activity, reflection and adaptation (O’Bannon, F., & McFaden, C., 2008).  As adult students move from one stage to the next learning takes place.  Facilitators develop the program but it is the adult learner that must be intrinsically motivated to join and the learning is self directed meaning that the adult is ultimately responsible for progressing through the stages.  The example given in the literature discusses an adult student that is confused as to what they want to do in life so they join a six month group dedicated to community service, job shadowing and group travel (O’Bannon, F., & McFaden, C., 2008).  The student then moves through the stages.  They begin with being motivated to join.  Next, they then orientate themselves to the group.  Moving on they get involved by deciding as a group the purpose and their goals.  Within the activity stage they go out and try to reach that purpose and goals.  As a group they come back and reflect and all individuals will have unique personal experiences.  The last stage of adaptation allows the learner to apply what they have learned to real life. 

Conclusion

Andragogy is a term that is synonymous with adult learning and education.  Arguments exist that it is not a true adult learning theory and this has sparked much debate.  Research shows that adults and preadults do learn differently however the research does not specifically test the assumptions that are the basis for this theory.   No matter which side of the fence that one sits one must agree that Malcolm Knowles and his theory of andragogy has had a profound field of adult education and has led to the creation of further theories and explanations within adult education.   
 

References

Baumgartner, L. (2008). Andragogy: An introduction and implications for curriculum and instruction. In V.      Wang (Ed.), Curriculum development for adult learners in the global community: Volume 1 Strategic Approaches (pp 34-57) Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing Company.

Draper, J. A. (1998), The metamorphoses of andragogy. The Canadian Journal for the Study of

Adult Education, 12(1), 3–26.

Imel, S. (1989). Teaching adults: Is it different? ERIC Digest, no. 82. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 305495).

Knowles, Malcolm S. (1980). The Modern Practice of Adult Education;  From Pedagogy to Andragogy (pp 13-59) Cambridge Publishing, New York, NY.

Merriam, S., Brockett, R. (2007), The Profession and Practice of Adult Education , (pp 135-140) Jossey-Bass Publishing, San Francisco, CA. 

Merriam, S., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L. (2007), Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide,  (pp 83-92) Jossey-Bass Publishing, San Francisco, CA. 

Mihall, J., & Belletti, H. (1999). Adult learning styles and training methods: Forget those 13,000 hours, FDIC ADR.

O’Bannon, F., & McFaden, C., (2008). Model of experiential andragogy: Development of a

non-traditional experiential learning program model. Journal of Unconventional Parks,

Tourism & Recreation Research, 1(1), 23-28.

Table 1. Summary of Literature Review
The Main Ideas in Literature	Application of the Main Ideas in Practice
1.      Adult learners are self-directed learners.	Adult learners will decide for themselves what is important to be learned and as they do this they will guide themselves.
2.      For adult learners personal experience is crucial and critical.	In order for adults to validate the information that they are learning it needs to be based on their beliefs and experience or they must be able to relate to it.   arners personal experience is crucial and critical.   learned.  As they do this they will guide themselves.   life.
3.      The learning environment is a collaboration between teacher, student and cohort (group).	Learners have the ability to serve as a knowledgeable resource, trainer and help fellow learners.  The teacher, student and cohort walks through the learning process together to reach the goals that have be predetermined and established between student, teacher and cohort.
Need to know	Adult learners need to know why they need to learn something before undertaking to learn it.
1.   Adult learners are intrinsically motivated.	Adults are motivated to learn because they have chosen this learning.  The motivation behind this learning is self-gratification and satisfaction.